Critical Point

The main purpose of commercial aviation is getting people from varied parts of the globe closer. Qantas airplane in October last year, a Boeing 787-9 covered roughly 10,000 miles during its journey from New York to Sydney. The aircraft was in the air for a non stop 19 hrs and 16 minutes.These figures are staggering and long haul flights look more and more promising with the innovations of these aircraft’s in the future post the pandemic.The most important point to take out of this for an aviation enthusiast is how safe is the airplane when it is flying for long hours continuously in the air?

There are a number of failures that can occur during long haul flights and with the help of alternate airfields on the route, a pilot can take a decision to divert and land at one of the alternates.The big question is what if there are no alternates on the route or on one of the long oceanic legs of the flight? The answer is to that is the Critical Point calculated by pilots before their flight.

What is Critical Point

Critical Point (CP) also know known as Point Of Equal Time (PET) is the decision point between two airfields from which it would take the same time to fly to either airfield.In other words, CP or ETP is a geographical point in the flight where the aircraft would have the same flying time to continue on to a given airport or to turn back to another suitable airfield.

The knowledge of CP enables the pilot to decide which way would it be quicker for him to proceed either to the destination or return to the place of departure if they face a time critical problem such as cabin fire or an flight medical emergency.

NOTE: Before you read any further, I would highly recommend having a quick look at the Wind Triangle post in case you haven’t WIND TRIANGLE. The study of Critical Point requires concepts from the wind triangle that would help us in calculating the calculating the Ground speed so please check that out.

Operative Points

1.Lets consider a route from point A to point B which is 200 NM long. Our aircraft has a TAS of 100 knots and there are no winds. In this scenario, the critical point or point of equal time is the point of equal distance, that is 100 NM. What this shows that at the 100 NM mark, the time to destination or time to return back to departure airfield would be same.

2.Lets take the same example as above and consider a headwind of 20 knots.With a 20 knots headwind, the ground speed outwards (GS out) from A to B will reduce by 20 knots and become 80 knots and if you consider the opposite, that is if you return to A and direction of travel is from B to A then your ground speed will increase from 100 to 120 knots and we will call this as ground speed home (GS home).Hence as the GS home is more than GS out, the CP moves forward than what it was in still air conditions.As we saw in this example, it is safe to say that in case of headwind component, distance to CP will always be more than mid way.

3.Lets take the same example as above and consider a tailwind of 20 knots.With a 20 knots tailwind, the ground speed outwards (GS out) from A to B will increase by 20 knots and become 120 knots and if you consider the opposite, that is if you return to A and direction of travel is from B to A then your ground speed will decrease from 100 to 80 knots and we will call this as ground speed home (GS home).Hence as the GS out is more than GS home, the CP moves backward than what it was in still air conditions.As we saw in this example, it is safe to say that in case of tailwind component, distance to CP will always be less than mid way.

From the above points 2 and 3, the effect of a headwind and tailwind makes the critical point move in the direction on the wind .

4.We have addressed the effect of wind on the Critical Point but how do we know the distance to the CP (DCP) from the point we are calculating it and the time to CP. Lets consider we are traveling a distance ‘D’ from A to B and we know our TAS and winds. With the help of our TAS and winds we can calculate Ground speed.If we want to calculate our CP from position A then the ground speed from A to CP can be termed as GS OUT (O) and the ground speed from CP to A can be termed as GS HOME (H).The distance and time to CP can be found out by simple formulas as shown in the picture.

5.To get used to the calculating the DCP and time to CP we shall consider an example. Total distance from A to B is 750 NM. The aircraft TAS is 250 knots with with a tailwind of 30 knots on departure. Calculate the distance and time to CP?

6.There might be instances where the winds are directly abeam (90 degrees) to your track. In such cases, the distance to CP will always be midway and whether we proceed outbound or inbound, both ways the aircraft will face headwind.

Lets consider an example, with our route distance being 270 NM. The track of our flight is 030 degrees and the wind is coming from 120 degrees (90 degrees to the track) at 35 knots. The true air speed is 125 knots. Find the distance to CP and time to CP?

Even when we have a look at the picture on the right, the calculations show us the same thing that the critical point is mid way of the total distance.

In this weeks post we covered a very important topic of flight planning that is used by pilots.I hope you liked reading the post and gained some insight from it. Please feel free to email me or post in the comments section, any aviation related topics you would like to gain knowledge on. Until next week, stay safe and stay healthy.

Your CO PILOT

Vertical Speed Indicator

Instruments in an aircraft are priceless for pilots. They are specially trained under the hood to get used to the instruments without looking outside the aircraft and understanding how the aircraft responds while flying only on instruments.After a student pilot has got used to the attitudes that he needs to set while flying visually with the horizon, he gets introduced to basic instrument flying.

In order to safely fly any aircraft, a pilot must understand how to interpret and operate the flight instruments. The pilot also needs to be able to recognize associated errors and malfunctions of these instruments.When a pilot understands how each instrument works and recognizes when an instrument is malfunctioning, he or she can safely utilize the instruments to their fullest potential.

Pressure Instruments

Instruments in an airplane can be categorized in several different ways,those are, pressure, gyro, vacuum and radio instruments. After that there is the magnetic compass which works on a different principle. The vertical speed indicator works on the principle of rate of change of differential static pressure.

Static Pressure

By definition, static pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of air of the atmosphere on a unit area.It can also be called the ambient pressure and is always present if the aircraft is moving or is at rest.Static pressure is simply the barometric pressure of the local area. If you fly at any altitude, the atmospheric pressure at that altitude can be called static pressure.Static vents on either side of the fuselage help in the measurement of static pressure.

The reason for two static vents is for redundancy purposes as a static vent might get blocked and in cases of crosswind and side slip maneuvers.In the latter cases, there would be a difference in the measurement of static pressure from the vents and hence to avoid incorrect indications both the vents are connected to each other from the inside to average out the result.

Vertical Speed Indicator

The VSI, which is sometimes called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI), indicates whether the aircraft is climbing, descending, or in level flight. The rate of climb or descent is indicated in feet per minute (fpm). If proper, the VSI indicates zero in level flight.

VSI DIAL

The VSI display two types of information :

• Trend information shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the aircraft’s rate of climb or descent.
• Rate information shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude.

The VSI indicator in the aircraft uses a logarithmic scale. The reason for using a logarithmic scale is that the lower values have more spacing and the higher values have less spacing. Therefore, it becomes easy to identify even a slight change in the VSI needle from zero position and can be easily recorded.

Operation

The VSI as we mentioned above works on principle of rate of change of differential static pressure.Before we get to understand how this difference in static pressure is achieved, it is helpful to know the components of a vertical speed indicator.
The vertical speed indicator is made up of:
- CAPSULE:The capsule is connected directly to the static line to receive air of existing atmosphere on one side and through linkages to the VSI pointer from the other side.
- CASING:The capsule is placed in an airtight casing. The casing also receives static pressure from the static line, however, there is a lag in which it gets its pressure.This helps to create the difference in static pressure which is required for the VSI operation.
- METERING UNIT/ CHOKE:Metering unit is used to achieve the time delay of static pressure between what is fed to the capsule and the case.The metering unit has a lot of names such as choke, restricted orifice or calibrated leak but the use of it remains the same, that is, to prove the necessary lag to feed the area outside the capsule.
When the aircraft is on the ground or in level flight, the pressure inside the capsule and casing is the same and there is no difference in static pressure. This will result in the VSI needle indicating zero.
When the aircraft is climbing, the atmospheric (static pressure) reduces as we climb and this is fed to the capsule. The same pressure is fed to the casing through a metering unit that will cause a delay and hence the pressure in the capsule will be less than in the casing which will cause the capsule to compress and indicates a RATE OF CLIMB.
When the aircraft is descending, the atmospheric (static pressure) increases as we descend and this is fed to the capsule. The same pressure is fed to the casing through a metering unit that will cause a delay and hence the pressure in the capsule will be more than in the casing which will cause the capsule to expand and indicates a RATE OF DESCEND.

Blockages

To understand what the VSI needle will indicate in case the static vent gets blocked, I would recommend viewing the diagram used in operations.

CASE 1: The aircraft flying level and the static vent is blocked. As flying level, VSI indicates zero and would continue to indicate zero even if the static vent is blocked.
CASE 2:During climb, static pressure vent is blocked. Due to the delay in the casing, the Rate of Climb indication will progressively reduce and settle to zero.

Errors

POSITION ERROR: The position error is on account of the incorrect location of the static vents.Due to this error, the VSI will wrongly indicate a climb or descent when speed is suddenly changed and is most noticeable during take off acceleration.
INSTRUMENT ERROR: It is on account of manufacturing imperfections.
LAG ERROR: The pointer would take sometime to indicate the change from the time it senses it. This error is most noticeable during prolonged climb or descents at a high rate.
MANOEUVRE INDUCED ERROR: Different changes in attitude and configurations of the aircraft will lead to this type of error.This leads to false indications of rate of climb or descent.
HYSTERISIS ERROR: When an aircraft is flying at a flight level for a considerable period of time, it will result in the VSI unwilling to respond to changes in static pressure values.

Instrument Check

As part of a preflight check, proper operation of the VSI must be established. Make sure the VSI indicates a near zero reading prior to leaving the ramp area and again just before takeoff. If the VSI indicates anything other than zero, that indication can be referenced as the zero mark. Normally, if the needle is not exactly zero, it is only slightly above or below the zero line. After takeoff, the VSI should trend upward to indicate a positive rate of climb and then, once a stabilized climb is established, a rate of climb can be referenced.

Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)

To overcome the problem of lag, the Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) implements the use of accelerometer (an electromechanical device used to measure acceleration).The IVSI uses a dashpot or a vane type accelerometer.
The main advantage of using such an accelerometer is that it responds very quickly to changes in altitude.
The sensitivity of a dash pot IVSI is very high and this results in the instrument over reacting in turbulent flying conditions and resulting in false indications and the errors are termed as turning errors. At the time of initiating a level turn, the IVSI momentarily indicates a climbing turn.

Fact of the Week

Qamdo Bangda Airport, also called Qamdo Bamda Airport, is a plateau airport located in Bangda Prairie, Hengduan Mountains.The Qamdo Bangda Airport started its construction on December 2, 1992. The Air Force only spent 83 days on fixing the 5,500m long and 45 m wide airport runway – the longest one in the world and the airport is 4,334m (14,219 ft) above sea level, which makes it the second highest airport in the world.

Climate environment of the Qamdo Bangda Airport is quite hostile. Wind speeds up to 30m per second in winter. Besides, the temperature often drops to 20 degrees centigrade below zero in winter and spring, which is difficult for flight operation. Due to its high elevation, the airport oxygen level is only 50% of that of sea level.he airport did a reconstruction and expansion to repaire the runway, building a new terminal of 5,018 square meters. From June 22 to July 15, 2013, the airport was shut down for a further maintenance of the old runway. A second runway is under construction from 2015.

We are done for this weeks post. I hope you gained some new knowledge from the world of aviation.If you did, please don’t forget to like this post and share it with your fellow aviation enthusiasts. Until next week, stay safe and stay healthy.

YOUR COPILOT

AVIATION FUEL

Fuel is a material used to produce heat or power by burning. The burning fuel can be used to generate power for lamps, heaters , stoves, lanterns and for running automobile and jet engines. Aviation fuel must meet the strict requirements for flying characteristics and are hence different from the fuel used in automobile engines.

Car Fuel vs Jet Fuel

An internal combustion engine is used to power a car where as a gas turbine engine is needed to power a jet. As mentioned above, they both would require some heat source by burning some sort of fuel to power the engine.

Where car and jet fuel differ is just the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms that are presenting the fuel. For example, car fuel ( gasoline) consists of hydrocarbons that contain anywhere from 7 to 11 carbon atoms with hydrogen molecules attached. Jet fuel, on the other hand, contains hydrocarbons more in the range of 12 to 15 carbon atoms, that is, kerosene.

Therefore, airplane fuel is derived from a much heavier chain of hydrocarbon molecules and the main reason for using it is safety. It takes a higher temperature to ignite kerosene as compared to gasoline. Kerosene is also easily transported and available throughout the world and can stay in the liquid form at lower temperatures which is very important as an airplane flies thousands of feet above the ground.

Understanding a Few Terms

Octane Rating/Number: It is a measurement of the quality or performance of the gasoline used. When you go to a gas station to fill petrol , the octane ratings are depicted by regular, mid-grade or premium. The higher the octane rating / number, the better the fuel burns in the engine and hence high performance cars have a need for higher octane ( premium) fuel. Similarly, the gasoline used in airplanes will have a higher octane rating than the gasoline used in cars.
Specific Gravity (SG) :Specific gravity also called relative density, ratio of the density of a substance to that of a standard substance.The usual standard substance used for comparing is water . Fuels have specific gravity less than water, which means that they float on water. This helps in identifying the presence of water in fuel during a fuel check .
Waxing Point : Waxing point, as the name suggests are the low temperature at which heavy hydrocarbons that are used in making jet fuels as discussed above, turn into wax crystals which clog the fuel filter. This could lead to operation limitations in the fuel system.
Flash Point: Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid when exposed to an open flame will turn into vapour. Below the flash point, insufficient vapour is present to support combustion.

Types of Aviation Fuel

Aviation Fuel is divided into 4 categories:

Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS)
Jet Fuel (JET A and Jet A-1)
Kerosene-Gasoline Mixture ( AVTAG OR JET B)
Bio Kerosene

Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS)

AVGAS is the type of aviation fuel used in small piston engine powered aircraft within the general aviation community. These aircraft are predominantly used by private pilots and flying clubs and for tasks such as flight training and crop dusting.
The octane rating of the fuel is specified with the grade , for eg AVGAS 100 is a 100 octane fuel.
AVGAS 100 LL and AVGAS 100 are the most commonly used grades of fuel .
The AVGAS 100 LL (low lead) and the AVGAS 100 have a lean mixture octane rating of 100 while its rich mixture octane rating is 130 that allows high performance engines to operate safely.
The way to differentiate between these two grades of fuel is by their colour . The AVGAS 100LL is BLUE in colour whereas AVGAS 100 is GREEN in colour.A good way to never forget how to differentiate is by noticing that the word Blue and AVGAS 100LL have the letter L.
AVGAS 115 was a high-octane avgas mostly used in military combat aircraft in the late 1940s when there was demand for high power output. Now, most military aircraft use turbine engines.

Jet Fuel

Gas turbine engine aircraft’s use kerosene fuels.The two types of kerosene fuels used in civilian gas turbine engine aircraft’s are Jet A and Jet A-1.
Jet A is a kerosene type of fuel with a specific gravity of 0.8 at 15 degrees C. It has a flash point of 38.7 degrees C and and a freezing point of -40 degrees C.
Jet A-1 is similar in comparison to Jet A but has a freezing point of -50 degrees C. It is normally only available in the U.S.A.

AVTAG Fuel (Jet B)

AVTAG also called Jet B is a kerosene-gasoline mix type fuel with a nominal specific gravity of 0.77 at 15 degrees C.
Jet B can be used as an alternative to Jet A but it has a wider range of flammability as it has a lower flash point and hence is not generally used in civilian aircraft’s .

Bio Kerosene

Jet fuel is a type of fossil fuel and eventually will become expensive in the long term.
Biokerosene is a mixture of jet fuel and a biofuels which are being used since 2008. There have been approximately 1,50,000 flights that have used Biokerosene to power their aircraft.
However these fuels are more expensive than jet fuels and this cost premium is a key barrier to their wider use.

FUEL CONTAMINATION

The primary types of contamination are water, particulate and microbiological material. In addition, contamination can occur from other fuel grades and chemicals that may be in multi-product transport systems. The fuel may also be rendered off-specification by either under-dosing/overdosing of approved additives, using an incorrect additive or from product testing issues not limited to, but including, poor sampling, incorrect test procedures and uncalibrated laboratory equipment.

Water

Jet fuels composition allows water to absorbed easily. The degree of water present depends mostly on the temperature of the fuel. When the temperature of the fuel is less, some of the water particles that are already present in the fuel draw out of the solution and accumulate at the lower points of the tank. When the fuel is warmer, it promotes the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere and suspension in the fuel.

Microbiological Growth

Certain bacteria and fungi thrive on the presence of water where it interfaces with jet fuel. The growth of microbial organisms leads to the corrosion of aluminium, steel and rubbers components of the fuel system.

Particulates

Particulate contamination can occur in a number of different ways. From dirt and sand getting in open ports to degradation of fuel system lines , particulates are constantly being introduced into the fuel system.

Fuel Inspection

During our preflight , if we carry the fuel inspection in a correct manner then the identification of any fuel contamination is not difficult. If a fuel sample appears cloudy of hazy , it could be because of two reasons, the presence of air or water. If the cloudiness appears to be moving towards the top of the sample then air is present , if the cloudiness appears to be moving towards the bottom of the sample then water is present as water has a higher specific gravity than fuel.

During fuel sampling ,fuel is drained into a clean and clear container that is filled at least halfway. After collecting the fuel sample, observing it against light helps in identifying water or particulates that could be present. Swirling the sample around by creating a tornado shaped vortex is another way of identification of fuel contamination. The absence of water at the lower points of the tank automatically leads to the elimination of microbial growth. The addition of jet fuel additives can also eliminate the growth of bacteria and other microbes.

JET FUEL ADDITIVES

A number of additives maybe blended into fuel either at the refinery or the airfield to improve the operational ability of the fuel. The most popular ones are:

Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (FSII) : A certain amount of water is present in fuels as discussed above. FSII contains an icing inhibitor and a fungal suppressant to deal with fuel contamination due to water and microbiological fungus that can block fuel system components.
HITEC (Lubricity Agent) : A lubricity agent when added to fuel can reduce the wear in fuel system components.
Static Dissipater: These additives partially eliminate the hazards of static electricity generated by the movement of fuel through modern high flow fuel transfer systems .
Corrosion Inhibitors: The corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous materials in pipelines, storage tanks against corrosion.

Fact of the Week

Concorde was born out of two separate French and British projects which joined forces in 1962. This partnership led to the British Aircraft Corporation (later British Aerospace, and now BAe Systems) and Aerospatiale (now EADS) of France to build a total of 20 Concordes, and became the foundation stone for the formation of Airbus.

Concorde recorded its fastest journey from New York to London on January 1st 1983, taking 2 hours 56 minutes.For most people, flying on Concorde is an impossible dream, the stuff of lottery wins and holidays of a lifetime.For the lucky few, ‘The Bird’ is a convenient method of travel, the equivalent of a bus or a train to the rest of us.Fred Finn was on the first and last Concorde flights and holds the Guinness World Record for the most Concorde flights as a passenger!. Click the link in the link here to know more about this iconic jet https://www.heritageconcorde.com/concorde-information–facts.

This is to this weeks post. Thank you for reading and hopefully you gained some new knowledge about aviation from this post. If you did , please don’t forget to share it with fellow aviation lovers and don’t forget to comment down below for suggestions. Until next week, stay safe and stay healthy.

YOUR COPILOT

AVIATION LANGUAGE AND STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY

Aviation makes the world a smaller place and international airlines play a huge role in connecting people from across the globe with different cultures together.International airlines as many international companies all over the world hire people from different countries. For example, Emirates Airlines recruits pilots from all over the world and there are 52 different nationalities of pilots currently in the airline. The top three nationalities being British, Australian and Canadian.

Need for Aviation Language

With such diversity in the crew, the focus on communication is very important. The flight crew, cabin crew , air traffic controller , in short, the entire aviation community need to communicate in a common language. In the history of aviation , a lot of accidents and incidents such as the Tenerife Airport runway collision or the Charkhi-Dadri Mid Air collision have time and again reminded us as aviators the importance of communication.

A)Controller: Descend two four zero zero feet.
In this message, the similarity between “two” and “to” led the pilot to understand 400 feet instead of 2 400 feet. The aircraft crashed into high ground.

B)Pilot: We are at take-off.
In this message, the controller understood that the pilot was waiting in position to begin the take-off, whereas the aircraft had actually begun to accelerate along the runway. It collided in foggy conditions with another aircraft.

The points A and B highlight the ease with which miscommunication can be of serious consequence and impact safety.

What is Aviation Language?

The field covered by the term “aviation language” is relatively broad. It could include all of the language uses of many different professions (engineers, technicians, commercial staff, flight crews, etc.) within the aviation domain.The sole object of ICAO language proficiency requirements is aeronautical radiotelephony communications, a specialized subcategory of aviation language corresponding to a limited portion of the language uses of only two aviation professions — controllers and flight crews.

The language spoken in aviation is called ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) English. The ICAO, recommended English to be the language for aeronautical radiotelephony communications in 1951 as most of the English speaking countries dominated the aviation market.English is a first language or a widely used national language in approximately sixty counties and is an important second language in many more.Non-native users of English outnumbered native users at the start of the 21st century by approximately 3 to 1.

Language Proficiency Requirements

Since the 5th of March 2008, every pilot or flight crew member coming into contact with international aviation communication including air traffic controllers must pass a language proficiency exam in compliance with ICAO regulations.

A language proficiency rating scale was developed as a guide to judge pilots and air traffic controllers over their command on the language. The scale was only tests speaking and listening skills and does not address reading and writing skills.

The scale is divided into 6 levels. Levels 1 to 3 on the rating scale assist the examiner on recruiting and training the candidate while Levels 4 to 6 set up a minimum operational requirement. Hence pilots need to need to make sure their language skills meet at least the ICAO Level 4 requirements.If a pilot gets a level 6 rating, he is granted an exemption from the need to be re-evaluated from time to time.

The Language proficiency exam tests consists of pronunciation, structure (use of tense etc), vocabulary, fluency, comprehension and interaction. However to acquire an ICAO Level 4 rating does not require high degrees of grammatical correctness and traditional English language .

ICAO Phonetic Alphabet

The International Civil Aviation Organization created the international radiotelephony alphabet, tied to the , English Alphabets . They were created to avoid the confusion between similar sounding alphabets such as B and D or M and N. Therefore on the radio the ATC will instruct the pilots the to “ Hold short of holding point APLHA” and not “Hold short of holding point A” .

STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY

The foundation’s of standard phraseology were laid in the Annex 10 Volume 2 of the ICAO Annexure. Standard phrases are of extremely useful in emergencies and unusual situation and helps keep communication concise.Therefore learning the new aviation alphabets is not the only difference in the aviation language, pilots and ATCs need to have these standard words and phrases registered in their memory.

There are about 300 standard words and phrases that are used. Some of the most common ones are listed below along with their meaning:

Acknowledge: Let me know when you have received and understood the message
Affirm: Yes
Approved: Permission for proposed message granted
Break: I hereby indicate the separation between portions of the message (to be used where there is no clear distinction between the text and other portions of the message)
Break Break: I hereby indicate separation between messages transmitted to different aircraft in a very busy environment
Cancel: Annul the previously transmitted clearance
Check: Used to examine a procedure or system
Cleared:Authorised to proceed under specific conditions
Confirm:Have you correctly received the message ?
Contact : Establish radio communication with …
Correction: An error has been made in the previous transmitted message. The corrected message is …
Disregard: Consider the transmission as not sent
I say again: Repeating for clarity of the message
Maintain: Continue in accordance with the condition specified . for eg, ‘Maintain VFR’ (VFR- Visual Flight Rules)
Mayday: My aircraft and its occupants are threatened by grave and imminent danger and/or I require immediate assistance
Negative: Permission not granted
Over: My transmission has ended and I expect a response
Pan Pan: I have an urgent message to transmit concerning the safety of my aircraft, or other vehicle or of some person on board, or within sight, but I do not require immediate assistance
Read Back: Repeat all, or the specified part, of this message back to me exactly as received
Report: Pass me the following information
Request: I wish to obtain
Stand by : Wait , I will connect with you in a bit
Wilco: I have understood your message and will comply with it

FACT OF THE WEEK: Mason Andrews, age 18 Yrs 163 Days became the youngest person to circumnavigate the globe in an aircraft when he completed his journey in Monroe, Louisiana, USA on the 6th of October 2018. Mason flew a single engine Piper PA -32 around the world in 76 days.

Andrews’s journey was only made possible by initially telling his parents he was flying solo across the Atlantic and no further. His parents were resistant to even allow this trip, but they were eventually persuaded by the scale and detail of his preparations. It was only later that they learned of the worldwide trip he was planning.

This is it for this weeks post. I hope you gained some new knowledge from it. Please share it with your fellow aviators and enthusiasts if you liked this post. Feel free to comment for suggestions. Until next week , stay safe and stay healthy .

YOUR COPILOT

TRANSPONDER AND SQUAWK CODES

The development of electronic communications over a period of time has been a big advantage for the aviation industry.The Airbus believes in Fly , Navigate and Communicate . With the help of electronic communication, the emphasis on verbal communication between the pilots and the air traffic controller has reduced severely .This helps aviators to concentrate on flying the aircraft which is of utmost importance.

Transponders and squawk codes help in reducing verbal communication and help maintain a silent cockpit.They assist the air traffic controller in knowing the aircraft position on their radars.

TRANSPONDER

DEFINITION:

A transponder (XPDR) as the name suggest is a transmitter and receiver. It is an electronic device that produces a response to an interrogation signal sent by the air traffic controller.

It was initially used in the military to identify aircraft’s . It was termed as ‘Identification of Friend or Foe’ as a military aircraft sent interrogation signals to another aircraft to find out if they are their friends or foes .

However , in commercial operations, as we only have friends we do not use these terms . The Air traffic controller assigns each aircraft a squawk code which enable them to identify the aircraft on their radar and other aircraft’s collision avoidance system.

WORKING

The ground based equipment transmits interrogation pulse signals on a frequency of 1030 MHz (Megahertz) and receives on 1090 MHz.While the Aircraft transponder , transmits on 1090 MHz and receives on 1030 MHz .

Signals from the ground transmitter are transmitted in pair of pulses that are coded and each code is known as a MODE.There are a few modes that will be discussed down below. The replies from the aircraft are however in all directions.

The ground receiver then decodes the reply from the aircraft and displays the necessary information such as aircraft call sign, altitude , speed etc on the radar.

MODES OF TRANSPONDER

The different modes of transponder help us gain different information of the aircraft .

MODE A:This type of transponder provides an identification code only .
MODE C: In Mode C, along with identification code , aircraft pressure altitude is provided as well .
MODE S: In Mode S (selective) ,there are a number of details that can be provided along with aircraft identification code and altitude. For example, aircraft ground speed , destination of the aircraft , desired track etc.

A Mode C transponder is commonly found in general aviation aircraft’s where as the commercial jets are equipped with Mode S transponder. In the flight plan that is needed to be file before a flight , it is necessary to mention the type of surveillance equipment (transponder) installed on board. In the ICAO flight plan, the necessary details are included in box 10,that is , Equipment ( more on flight plan in a separate post).

LOOK ON THE RADAR

Once the ground receiver has decoded the information, the radar displays the necessary information depending upon the mode of transponder. The different aircraft’s are shown as a blip or a trace on the radar screen.In the figure down below , the example shows the aircraft is equipped with a MODE S transponder.

TRANSPONDER SETTINGS

STBY: The Stand By function powers up the transponder and makes it available for operation.

ON : In the ON position, it will send primary information to the radar, that is , it will work like a MODE A transponder.

ALT:If the ALT RPTG is in the ON position , the transponder will send altitude data and will work like a MODE C/ MODE S transponder.

IDENT: All modes (A,C,S) include an ident button.It reveals the identity of the aircraft to the ATC on their radar and helps them locate the aircraft too. For example, when the ATC requests the aircraft to ‘SQUAWK IDENT’ , the pilots need to press the ident button which leads to the aircraft blip on the radar to flash and enables the controller to easily identify the aircraft among many other that are near it.

SQUAWK CODES

What are Squawk Codes?

Transponder transmission usually requires a discrete code to identify the aircraft. These codes are assigned by the ATC to each aircraft in their departure clearance.

The squawk codes are 4 digit octal numbers from 0 to 7 and range from 0000 to 7777. Once the pilot receives his squawk code , he has to enter the 4 digit code so that he is visible on the radar .

Let’s take an example, the controller on your departure clearance assigns the pilot to squawk 1234. The pilot can enter 1234 via the numbers shown in the image below and the screen will display the squawk code entered.

Reserved Codes

There are a few transponder codes that have a predetermined meaning and should be used when the aircraft faces that occurrence.

In the above mentioned reserved codes, it is always a good idea to remember the last three codes as they notify the ATC immediately of the problem. As a good rule of thumb, I remember the word ice, that is, interference communication emergency and corresponding to those are the codes, which are, 7500 7600 7700.

Check the image on the right to have a better understanding.

FACT OF THE WEEK: This week we go back to the years where the Wright Brothers were busy making their first powered airplane . A powered airplane would require an engine for the aircraft to take flight. Charles “Charlie” Taylor a mechanic who worked at the Wright Brothers bicycle shop stepped up to help them in their pursuit and became the first man to build an engine that powered an airplane and the first aviation mechanic in history. If it hadn’t been for Charlie the first powered airplane would never have gotten off the ground.

Please click on the link to know more about Charlie Taylor https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/field_offices/fsdo/phl/local_more/media/ct%20hist.pdf

We are done for this week. I hope you gained some knowledge from this post and if you did please like and share it with your fellow aviators.Please feel free to comment if you have any doubts or suggestions for further posts. Until then stay safe, stay healthy.

YOUR COPILOT

TAKE OFF-CLIMB SEGMENTS

“CLEARED FOR TAKE OFF”- when a pilot hears these words from the Air Traffic Controller, he knows it is time for him to bring the highest order of focus he can for one of the most critical phases of flight , that is ,take off.

Need for Take off Segments

One of the significant emergencies that an aircraft can face is an engine failure on take off , it means that the engine is no longer providing the necessary thrust needed.In order for the aircraft to be safe from any emergencies that may occur , it is necessary that it achieves the minimum climb gradients and clears its surrounding area and obstacles with sufficient altitude. Hence the take off segments help in achieving the above requirements.

Understanding a few terms

Before we look at the different segments of climb, it is necessary to understand a few terms related to the take off segments as it will help us understand the post better.

SCREEN HEIGHT:The take off part of the flight is the distance from where the brakes are released to the point at which the aircraft reaches a defined height.This defined height is known as screen height.It is usually 35 ft (for class A aircraft) on a dry runway and if the runway is wet it can reduce down to 15 ft.

TAKE OFF SAFETY SPEED (V2): V2 is the target speed the aircraft should attain prior to or before reaching the screen height. The reason it is called take off safety speed is because it should be attained with one engine inoperative and avoid the aircraft from stalling or the pilots loosing control of the aircraft.

NOTE:WE WILL DISCUSS THE DIFFERENT AIRCRAFT SPEEDS IN A SEPARATE POST.

CLIMB GRADIENT:The ratio of change in height (altitude gained), during a portion of a climb, to the horizontal distance traversed in the same time period.It is expressed as a percentage. It also refers to the angle at which the aircraft climbs.For an aircraft to climb , thrust has to balance drag and a part of the weight as well . Hence we require excess thrust to give us the climb gradient or angle of climb .

Climb gradient =Excess Thrust *100/Weight

The take off climb segments start from the screen height that is 35 ft above the take off surface and end at 1500 ft above the take off surface and are divided into 4 segments.

Segment 1

The first segment starts when the aircraft reaches the screen height, that is 35 ft .
The aircraft keeps climbing at the take off safety speed, that is V2 speed, until the gear is retracted.
The objective of this segment is to expedite the climb and to make sure there is reduction in drag .
There are two ways to reduce drag in this scenario , retracting the flaps or the landing gear.
Since retracting the flaps very close to the ground is dangerous, we choose the option of retracting the gear .
The first segment ends as soon as the landing gear is retracted .

Segment 2

The second segment commences from the gear retraction point and the aircraft still has to maintain the take off safety speed (V2).
The next important step is to retract flaps so that we can start accelerating the aircraft .
However , companies have a set altitude from which the flap retraction can start for example , 400 ft AAL (above aerodrome level).
As the gear is already retracted in the previous segment, the main source of drag is removed.
This makes it easier for the aircraft to climb at a higher climb gradient than segment 1. The climb gradient should not be less than 2.4%.
The main objective of the second segment is to clear the aircraft from the surrounding obstacles by maintaining the necessary climb gradient .
The second segment concludes at 400 ft AGL or the height decided by the company from where flap retraction can commence .

Segment 3

The third segment begins from 400 ft or flap retraction altitude set by the company .
The main objective of this segment is to accelerate the aircraft so that the flaps can be retracted step by step .
The reason we accelerate while retracting the flaps is because the stall speed will increase when we retract flaps .
Hence as the aircraft accelerates from take off safety speed (V2) to a higher speed that is minimum drag speed or best angle of climb speed so that the aircraft doesn’t get close to stall speed .
Once the flaps are retracted , we can set the thrust levers to maximum continuous thrust (MCT) from take off thrust .
In the Airbus 320, take off thrust can only be used continuously for a period of 05 mins on both engines and in case of an engine failure , it can be used continuously for 10 mins.
The segment however ends once the thrust lever are set to MCT and flaps are retracted .

Segment 4

The fourth segment starts once the trust levers are set to MCT and flaps are retracted.
The climb gradient for the last stage should not be less that 1.2%.
In the fourth segment, the airplane is climbed to above 1500 ft AAL (above aerodrome level) where the take off flight path ends.
In case of an engine failure , the pilot can make a decision to land at the departure aerodrome or go on further to an alternate airfield.

FACT FOR THE WEEK: This week we talk about the worlds largest passenger carrier aircraft , the Airbus A380. It is a double decker behemoth with four engines and has a cabin that can be occupied by more than 500 people .It first took flight in 2005 and was first delivered to Singapore Airlines in 2007.The Airbus A380 is also sometimes referred to as the SuperJumbo.

In 2019, it was however announced by Airbus that it would stop the production of the aircraft and the ones already in production will be delivered by 2021.The reason behind this was majority of the airlines preferring the new Airbus A350 in comparison to the A380 . The SuperJumbo will be definitely missed.

This is it for this weeks post. I hope you had a good read and got to learn something new as well . If you did , please don’t forget to likely share it with fellow aviators and aviation enthusiasts. Please feel free to comment for any questions or recommendations on the blog or further topics .Until next week , stay safe and stay healthy .

YOUR COPILOT

AIRPORT MARKINGS

Need for Airport Marking

Imagine yourself piloting your favorite aircraft out of Chicago O’Hare International Airport on a very busy afternoon for the first time and you’ve just received your taxi clearance, as you start to taxi there are no clear airport markings to guide you to the runway.If I was in your seat, I would be the most confused person at that airport.

A lot of things in Aviation require uniformity and standardization just like we discussed in Freedoms Of The Air.Hence, Airport Markings help enhance safety which is of prime importance and aids pilots avoid confusion during critical stages of flight that are taxi, take off and landing.

Types of Airport Markings

Airport markings are categorized mainly into :

Runway Markings
Taxiway Markings
Hold Position Markings
Other Markings
Mandatory Instruction Marking
Information Marking

Runway Markings

1.RUNWAY DESIGNATION MARKINGS

A runway designation marking shall be provided at the thresholds of a paved runway. However it is also recommended on unpaved runways (grass, dirt, sand runways).
A runway designation marking shall consist of a two-digit number and on parallel runways shall be supplemented with a letter.
- For example, Runway 21 and in case of parallel runway runway 21 L or 21 R.
On a single runway, dual parallel runways and triple parallel runways the two-digit number shall be the whole number nearest the one-tenth of the magnetic North when viewed from the direction of approach.
- If The actual direction of the runway could be 206 degrees however we round it to the nearest one tenth whole number that is 210 degrees and hence runway 21.
- If The actual direction of the runway could be 202 degrees however we round it to the nearest one tenth whole number that is 210 degrees and hence runway 20.
On four or more parallel runways, one set of adjacent runways shall be numbered to the nearest one-tenth magnetic azimuth and the other set of adjacent runways numbered to the next nearest one-tenth of the magnetic azimuth.
- For example, if we have four parallel runways of direction 202, 204, 206, 208 degrees we name one set of them as 20 R and 20 L and the other set as 21 R and 21 L.
When the above rule would give a single digit number, it shall be preceded by a zero.
- This simply means that we do not write 8 L and 8 R for runway designation instead it is designated as 08 L and 08 R.
In the case of parallel runways, each runway designation number shall be supplemented by a letter as follows, in the order shown from left to right when viewed from the direction of approach:
- — for two parallel runways: “L” “R”;
- — for three parallel runways: “L” “C” “R”;
- — for four parallel runways: “L” “R” “L” “R”;
- — for five parallel runways: “L” “C” “R” “L” “R” or “L” “R” “L” “C” “R”; and
- — for six parallel runways: “L” “C” “R” “L” “C” “R”.

RUNWAY CENTRE LINE MARKINGS

A runway centre line marking shall be located along the centre line of the runway between the runway designation markings.
- However at the intersection of two or more runways , priority is given to the more important runway markings except for the runway side strip markings.
A runway centre line marking shall consist of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. The length of a stripe plus a gap shall be not less than 50 m or more than 75 m. The length of each stripe shall be at least equal to the length of the gap or 30 m, whichever is greater.
- For example, the centre line marking can be 30 m long with a gap of 20 m between the next marking which makes it a total of 50 m however this total cannot exceed 75 m.

THRESHOLD MARKINGS

A threshold marking shall be provided at the threshold of a paved instrument runway and also on a paved non instrument runway with code number 3 or 4 and the runway is intended for use by international commercial air transport.
The stripes of the threshold marking shall commence 6 m from the threshold.
A runway threshold marking shall consist of a pattern of longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the centre line of a runway.
- The number of stripes in a threshold marking depends on the width of the runway.

AS A GOOD RULE OF THUMB, I ONLY REMEMBER 12 STRIPES CORRESPONDING TO 45 M AS MOST INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS HAVE THAT. THEN IF YOU DIVIDE IT BY 2 YOU GET 23 M AND 6 STRIPES. SIMILARLY, IF YOU REMEMBER 60 M WITH 16 STRIPES AND YOU DIVIDE THAT BY 2 YOU GET 30 M WITH 8 STRIPES.

TRANSVERSE STRIPE AND ARROWS

Where a threshold is displaced from the extremity of a runway or where the extremity of a runway is not square with the runway centre line, a transverse stripe should be added to the the threshold.
- A displaced threshold is a runway threshold located at a point other than the physical beginning or end of the runway.
- A displaced threshold occurs due to runway repairs, obstructions and this results in the displaced part not being used for landing.
A transverse stripe should be 1.80 M or more wide in length.
Where a runway threshold is permanently displaced, arrows conforming shall be provided on the portion of the runway before the displaced threshold.
When a runway threshold is temporarily displaced from the normal position, it shall be marked as shown in the figure below and all markings prior to the displaced threshold shall be obscured (make something difficult to observe) except the runway centre line marking, which shall be converted to arrows.

IMAGE CREDITS:AIRLINE PILOTS FORUM AND RESOURCE

TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKINGS

A touchdown zone marking shall be provided in the touchdown zone of a paved precision approach runway.
A touchdown zone marking shall consist of pairs of rectangular markings symmetrical from the runway centre line with the number of such pairs related to the landing distance available.
The pair of touchdown zone markings shall be spaced at a distance of 150 M beginning from the threshold.

AS A GOOD RULE OF THUMB, I JUST REMEMBER THE FIRST VALUES.FOR EXAMPLE, 900, 1200, 1500 AND 2400 M AND THEIR CORRESPONDING PAIR OF MARKINGS.

RUNWAY SIDE STRIPES

A runway side stripe marking shall be provided between the thresholds of a paved runway where there is a lack of contrast between the runway edges and the shoulders or the surrounding terrain.
- The runway side stripes help in providing a visual contrast between runway edges and the abutting terrain which sometimes could be tough to differentiate.
The stripes are continuous white located on each side of the runway.

TAXIWAY MARKINGS

TAXIWAY CENTRE LINE MARKINGS

Taxiway centre line marking shall be provided on a paved taxiway, de-icing/anti-icing facility and apron so as to provide guidance between the runway centre line and where the aircraft stands.
Taxiway centre line marking shall be at least 15 cm in width and a single continuous yellow line except where it intersects with a runway-holding position marking or an intermediate holding position marking.
- It should be noted that although the taxiway centre line markings keep the aircraft along the centre they do no provide wing tip clearance.

ENHANCED TAXIWAY CENTRE LINE MARKINGS

Enhanced Taxiway Centre Line Markings should be provided to denote the proximity of runway holding position.
They should also be installed at runway/ taxiway intersections if possible.
If provided they shall extend from the runway hold position to a distance of up to 47 M in the direction of travel away from the runway.

Hold Position Markings

RUNWAY HOLD POSITION MARKINGS

The hold position markings on the taxiway are indications for the aircraft to stop before entering the runway .
Air Traffic Clearance is required for aircraft’s to enter the runway however while exiting the runway to a taxiway, air traffic clearance is not needed unless stated by the controller.
The hold position markings consist of 4 yellow lines, that is , 2 solid and 2 dashed and 3 spaces at 0.15 M each.

INTERMEDIATE HOLD POSITION MARKINGS

Intermediate hold position markings are used at an intersection of two taxiways.
It shall be located across the taxiway at sufficient distance from the near edge of the intersecting taxiway to ensure safe clearance between taxiing aircraft.
An intermediate holding position marking shall consist of a single broken line.
When instructed by ATC to hold at a particular taxiway, the aircraft must stop and not cross the intermediate hold position marking until advised by ATC.

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM HOLD POSITION MARKING

The ILS (more on the instrument landing system in a separate post) hold position marking consist of two yellow solid lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the taxiway as shown below.
A sign with an inscription in white on a red background is located adjacent to these hold position markings.

Other Markings

VOR AERODROME CHECKPOINT MARKING

A VOR aerodrome checkpoint marking shall be centred on the spot at which an aircraft is to be parked to receive the correct VOR signal.
A VOR aerodrome checkpoint marking shall consist of a circle 6 m in diameter and have a line width of 15 cm as shown below.
These markings should be preferably white in color with a black border to provide contrast and necessary to be different from the taxiway color markings.

AIRCRAFT STAND MARKINGS

Aircraft stand markings should be provided for designated parking positions on a paved apron and on a deicing/ anti icing facility.
These markings should include information like stand identification, lead in line, turning line, stop line and lead out line.
The lead in line should include stand identification information (number and/or alphabet) that is visible for the reader from the cockpit.
When two sets of aircraft stand markings are superimposed on each other then to make it understandable for the pilot the aircraft identification should also be added with the markings.
- For example, 2a-A320 AND 2b-B737.

APRON SAFETY LINES

Apron safety lines should be provided on a paved apron as required by parking configurations and ground facilities.
These markings define the areas to be used by ground vehicles and other aircraft servicing equipment and provide safe separation from aircraft’s such as wing tip clearance.
The apron safety lines should continuous in length and 10 CM in width.

ROAD HOLDING POSITION MARKING

A road holding position marking should be provided at all road entrances to a runway.
These markings shall be in accordance with local road traffic regulations.

Mandatory Instruction Marking

Mandatory Instruction Marking assist in prevention of runway incursions. A mandatory sign should be installed and in places where it is impracticable to install signs , mandatory markings are used.
The markings on taxiways shall be equally located along the taxiway centre line and holding side of the runway holding position marking.
The marking should consist of an inscription in white on a red background.
- For example, “No ENTRY” written in white on red background for a no entry marking.

Information Marking

Information Markings are helpful when there are complex taxiway intersections and when information signs are not available.
An information marking shall consist of :
- An inscription in yellow upon a black background, where it replaces or supplements a location sign.
- An inscription in black upon a yellow background, where it replaces or supplements a direction or destination sign.

FACT FOR THE WEEK: Beijing Daxing International Airport (PKX) is the largest international airport in the world.With its opening in September 2019, it spans over 7.5 million square feet and took over 11 billion dollars to build it.Based on the starfish theme, it ensures convenience and eco friendliness.It takes about a total of 8 minutes for passengers to travel from security to their gate. The first phase of the airport project is designed with a target of 72 million passengers, 2 million tons of cargo and mail and 620,000 aircraft movements in the long term.

This is it for this weeks post. I hope you liked it and learnt something new from it. Please don”t forget to share it with your fellow aviators.Until next week, stay safe and stay healthy.

YOUR COPILOT

CATEGORIES AND CLASS OF AIRCRAFT

It was a cold windy morning when the Wright Brothers took out their flying machine from their sheds at the Kill Devils hills in North Carolina on the 17th of December 1903. At exactly 10:35 am, Orville Wright flew a distance of 120 feet and was airborne for approximately 12 seconds.The Wright Brothers used their successful glider to build this flying machine which they named the “FLYER“.However they had to increase the wing area considerably to install the engine and the propellers.

Orville Wright on the control of the FLYER as Wilbur Wright assists him . Credit:DAVID McCULLOUGH’S “THE WRIGHT BROTHERS”

If you are interested in knowing more about the Wright Brothers, I would highly recommend you to read “THE WRIGHT BROTHERS” by DAVID McCULLOUGH or visit https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/wright-brothers/online/fly/1903/

The “FLYER” certainly turned out to be one of the inventions of the century that led to the evolution of the aviation industry and the diversification of airplanes.This leads us to categorizing several airplanes and differentiating them further into various classes.

Please note that this post will not be covering information related to the ratings associated with different classes and please do not get confused between classes and type and their related ratings. I will cover the subject related to class and type ratings in a separate post.

CATEGORIES OF AIRCRAFT

According to the FAA, an aircraft category refers to the intended use or operating limits of a particular group of aircraft.The FAA then differentiates aircraft category by their characteristics and physical properties which are broken down with respect to the Certification of Airmen or with respect to Certification of Aircraft.

Certification Of Airmen

For purposes of ratings on a pilot certificate, there are SEVEN different aircraft categories:

1.AIRPLANE: An engine driven fixed wing aircraft heavier than air, that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its wings.In level flight, there are four forces acting on an airplane. the weight of it is counteracted by the lift produced by the wing and the drag is counteracted by the thrust developed from the engines.

2. ROTORCRAFT: It denotes a heavier than air aircraft that supports the dynamic reaction of the air against its rotors on a vertical axis.The rotor generates its lift by using the rotor blades.

3. POWERED LIFT: A heavier-than-air aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight, which depends principally on engine-driven lift devices or engine thrust for the lift during these flight regimes and on non-rotating aerofoil for lift during horizontal flight.They are a combination of an airplane for horizontal movement and rotorcraft for take off and landing.

4.GLIDER: A non power (without engines) driven heavier than air aircraft that derives its lift chiefly from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces that remain fixed under given conditions of flight.A paper plane made in school is the simplest example of a glider.The most obvious difference between a glider and an airplane is that the later flies without an engine and hence the drag created has to be counteracted by the lift in comparison to an airplane where the engine balances the drag.

5.LIGHTER THAN AIR: Any aircraft chiefly supported by its buoyancy in the air.These aircraft contain a sufficient volume of gas that is lighter than air which when heated creates the necessary lift required.

6.POWERED PARACHUTE: It is a powered aircraft comprised of a semi rigid or a flexible wing so that the wing is not in position until the aircraft is in motion.The fuselage consists of an engine, a seat and is attached to the aircraft landing gear.The thrust from the engine pushes the cart forward forces air into the leading edge of the wing resulting in an inflated and pressurized wing that helps to fly, as it keeps its airfoil shape.

Certification Of Aircraft

With respect to certification of aircraft, it is given in terms of intended use or operating limitations.According to the FAA, they are categorized as follows:

TRANSPORT: Multi-engine airplanes with more than 19 seats or a maximum takeoff weight greater than 19,000 lbs must be certificated in the transport category.
NORMAL: Aircraft with a maximum take off weight of 12,500 lbs (5700 kgs) and a seating capacity of 09 passenger seats.
UTILITY: Aircraft limited to limited acrobatic operations with a maximum take off weight of 12,500 lbs (5700 kgs) and passenger seating capacity of 09 seats.
ACROBATIC: Aircraft with no flight maneuver restrictions other than posted by flight tests.They have a maximum take off mass of 12,500 lbs (5700 kgs) and a passenger seating capacity of 09.
RESTRICTED: Operation of restricted category aircraft is restricted to special purposes identified in the applicable type design.These special purpose operations can be agricultural work, aerial advertising, forest surveying etc
LIMITED: A limited category special airworthiness certificate is issued to operate surplus military aircraft that have been converted to civilian use under guidelines mentioned by the regulatory.
PROVISIONAL: A provisional category special airworthiness certificate is issued to conduct special purpose operations of aircraft with provisional type certificates.Class I certificates may be issued for all categories and have a duration of 24 months. Class II certificates are issued for transport category aircraft only and have a duration of 12 months.

CLASS OF AIRCRAFT

Aircraft class relates to a broader grouping of aircraft having similar characteristics of propulsion, flight and landing.The categories of aircraft are therefore broken down into further classes.As mentioned earlier, the categories of aircraft are divided into certification of airmen and certification of aircraft.Both the categories will have their classes but we will be discussing the classes based on the category of airmen.

1.AIRPLANE: The airplane category is divided into 4 classes:

SINGLE ENGINE LAND
SINGLE ENGINE SEA
MULTI ENGINE LAND
MULTI ENGINE SEA

2.ROTORCRAFT: The rotorcraft category is divided into 2 classes:

HELICOPTER
GYRO-PLANE

3.POWERED LIFT:The powered lift category is not divided into classes.

4.GLIDER: The glider category is not divided into classes.

5.LIGHTER THAN AIR: The LTA aircraft are divided into 2 classes:

AIRSHIPS
BALLOONS

6.POWERED PARACHUTE: The category is divided into 2 classes:

Powered Parachute Land
Powered Parachute Sea

7.WEIGHT -SHIFT-CONTROL:The category is divided into 2 classes:

Weight shift control Land
Weight shift control Sea

Every week we discuss a fun fact about aviation and this week we talk about Amelia Earhart.

FACT:Amelia Earhart became the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean on the 20th OF May 1932.Earhart set off from Newfoundland, Canada in her single engine Lockheed Vega 5B. After a flight lasting 14 hours 56 minutes during which she contended off several problems, Earhart successfully landed in Northern Ireland. Earhart’s accomplishments in the field of aviation inspired a generation of female aviators to join the air force and continues to inspire female pilots around the globe #GIRLPOWER.

That is it for this week everyone.I hope you gained some knowledge from this weeks post and liked it as well.Please don’t forget to like and share it with your fellow aviators. I would love to know which category of aircraft do you fly or would love to fly in the comments below.Until next time stay safe and stay healthy.

YOUR COPILOT